Arthropods of Elm Fork Preserve

Arthropods of Elm Fork Preserve

Arthropods are characterized by having jointed limbs and exoskeletons. They include a diverse assortment of creatures: Insects, spiders, crustaceans (crayfish, crabs, etc.), pill bugs, centipedes and millipedes among others. It is estimated that more than 50,000 species of arthropods live in Texas.

Definition of Terms

Common Names: For ease of sorting and reference, arthropods are listed by the type of creature first, followed by a comma and the descriptor. For example, ‘ambush bug’ would become ‘bug, ambush’ in order to group butterflies, bugs and beetles in the text.

Scientific Name: The phenomenal diversity of arthropods (possibly 50,000 species in Texas), creates numerous difficulties in the determination of species. Positive identification is often achieved only by specialists using obscure monographs to ‘key out’ a species by examining microscopic differences in anatomy. For our purposes in this survey of the fauna, classification at a lower level of resolution still yields valuable information. For instance, knowing that ant lions belong to a family, Myrmeleontidae, allows us to quickly look them up in a field guide and be confidant we are not being fooled by a common name that may also apply to something else. From there we may learn of the natural history of ant lions without needing to know exactly which species they are. Sometimes identification is only readily available at an even higher ranking such as Class which is above Order. Millipedes are in the Class Diplopoda. There are many Orders of millipedes and they are not easily differentiated so this entry is best left at the rank of Class. Rankings are indicated to the left of the name and are signified as follows: (C) Class, (O) Order, and (F) Family. In addition to this, rankings of arthropods are often further broken down into lesser rankings such as Suborder or Superorder. These are designated below with a sub or superscript, as in Suborder (_SO) or Superfamily (^SF).

Comments: The comments section lists remarks in the following order:

^{1Interesting facts and natural history associated with the
animal. Its place of origin is also listed if it is an alien.}^{2The potential for poisoning or otherwise injuring humans.
Edible, medicinal or other useful qualities of the animal (for humans).}^{3Usefulness of the animal in the local ecology.}^{4Identifying features of the animal, especially differences
between similar species.}^{5Dates, times and locations of animals sighted. Observed
behaviors.}^{6Synonyms; outdated or recently changed scientific names are
inserted here.}^{7Good references for further information on this animal.}

X: Variable use column for sorting. A = Alien (introduced) species, E = Endemic – native species existing only in a limited geographical area, P = Poisonous – This animal has the capability to cause harm to humans, Z = unusual or rare species worthy of further scrutiny.

Common Name	Scientific Name		Comments	X

Ant, Black Carpenter	(O) Hymenoptera Camponotus pennsylvanicus		¹Of the 14 species of carpenter ant listed as occurring in Texas, the largest is the black carpenter ant (Drees & Jackman, 1998, p.287). ^{2Carpenter ants are unable to sting, but can bite. ^{3Food choices include: honeydew (a sweet secretion produced by aphids), decaying fruit and small insects.}} 528 April 99 – Encountered a solitary, giant sized (~1.5cm), black carpenter on the main trail on the North side, at the lightning struck cottonwood tree.
Ant, Red Fire	(O) Hymenoptera Solenopsis invicta		¹This unnerving insect has arrived to conquer the warmer parts of North America. A small number of mated queens were transported accidentally in a ship from South America that docked in Mobile Alabama in the 1930’s. They spread rapidly due to weak competition from the native ants and a lack of predators. Fire ants crossed the border into Texas in 1956 and were immediately stamped out of existence by a human campaign of complete annihilation. In 1957, they marched in again, in force and unstoppable. Every species that encounters them must adapt to their presence. ^{2So what do fire ants taste like anyway? The author has tried them two ways - sautéed in oil and slow roasted in the oven. Sautéed is the preferred method. The initial flavor in both cases is good - a nutty, almost popcorn-like flavor. When sautéed, the aftertaste is slight; while roasted fire ants have a distinctive aftertaste that is unlike any other. It is a bizarre cross between citrus and black pepper. Be sure to collect them where they are unlikely to have been poisoned. ^{3Fire ants are omnivorous, but concentrate mainly on insects as prey. They are known to feed on fatty deposits surrounding seeds or on certain oily plant parts. They can also overpower and kill the young of ground nesting birds, baby mammals and other large prey. Heavy infestations can lead to drastic declines in numerous other species, both by the reduction of food sources and by direct attacks on other species. There may be a fire ant parasite living in Texas – see Milam, March/April 1997, p.2.}}^{5 10-28-97 – On the author’s first visit to Elm Fork Preserve, many fire ant mounds were noted. ^{7(Vinson & Sorensen, 1986, p.10) Milam, Royce. "Adding Arthropods to Your Diet". Wild Vision Newsletter. November 1996, Volume 2, issue 11 Milam, Royce. "Red Fire Ant Update". Nature Center News, (Publication of the Dallas Nature Center). March/April 1995, pp. 5-6, 9. Milam, Royce. "Red Fire Ant Update – Genetic Discoveries". Wild Vision Newsletter. February 1996, Volume 2, Issue 2, p.3}} Ibid., "Non-chemical Methods of Fire Ant Control", p.4	A
Antlion, Doodlebug	(O) Neuroptera (^SF) Myrmeleontoidea (F) Myrmeleontidae Myrmeleon spp.		¹Antlions are curious creatures that are most entertaining to watch in the larva stage. In spring the larvae create conical pits in fine soil. Any hapless ants traveling too close to the pit find themselves sliding down the side into the waiting jaws of the antlion. If an ant is not grabbed immediately it will struggle to climb the steeply sloped sides of the pit. The soil is fine and dry and the ant slips repeatedly in its attempts to escape. The antlion often tosses sand at the ant if it nears the top. Soon the ant finds viselike jaws clamped around its thin pedicel and struggles vainly before being dragged beneath the sand to its death. Larvae take one to three years to reach adulthood. When winter comes, they dig deeper into the soil and remain inactive until spring. Mature larvae make cocoons at the base of their pits and pupate for approximately one month, emerging in summer as winged adults. The adults resemble wimpy dragonflies and are poor fliers. ^{5 Observed several of the distinctive pits in the soil beneath the interpretive center.} 7(Drees & Jackman, 1998, p. 93, p. 142-photo of adult and larva), (Nardi, 1988, p.159), (Stokes, 1983, p. 26)
Beetle, Multi-spotted Ladybird (Ladybug)	(F) Coccinellidae Hippodamia convergens		³Numerous species belong in this group. The larvae and adults of most species feed on pest insects in the garden, especially aphids, scale insects and mites (Borrer & White, 1970, p.180). The species of ladybird beetle most often sold to control aphids is Hippodamia convergens. Adults are red with (sometimes) 12 black spots. The larvae are voracious, eating as many as 40 aphids in an hour (Yepsen, 1984, pp. 49-50, 198-199). ^{514 Jan 03 – Multi-spotted observed taking refuge in an abandoned paper wasp nest.} 7(Borrer, Delong & Triplehorn, 1976, p. 404)
Bug, Assasin	(F) Reduviidae		¹ Assassin bugs are amazing to sit and watch. Common prey are insects, especially bees. When one attacks an insect, it holds it with powerful forelegs and stabs its hypodermic-needle-like beak into the victims back, then injects an immobilizing digestive fluid into it. After the deadly chemicals have turned the interior of the insect into a liquid protein drink, the assassin sucks it dry like a 7-11 slurpee. Yeeha!^{2Warning: Do not thump or slap them, they can inflict a painful bite. ^{4Identification of individual species has not been attempted to date.}}^{5Commonly seen throughout the preserve from spring through fall.} 7(Borrer & White, 1970, p.119)
Bug, Pill	(O) Isopoda Armadillidium vulgare	¹Pill bugs can be found on any excursion - under logs, leaves, rocks and sometimes in massive conglomerations on feces. The easiest way to distinguish Armadillidium spp. is that they can roll into a ball whereas Porcellio spp. cannot. The name Armadillidium comes from the Spanish Armadillo and -idus, meaning similar to.^{2Pill Bugs are edible and actually tasty if prepared properly – see Milam, Jan/Feb 1997, p.1 for details.}^{514 Jan 03– Observed several beneath a rotted log near the interpretive center.} 7(Levi & Levi, 1968, p.152)
Bug Sow	(O) Isopoda (F) Oniscidae, and (F) Porcellionidae	¹Sow bugs are found in the same habitats as pill bugs, favoring the undersides of rotting logs, flat stones and leaf litter. Some sow bugs are native, others have been introduced from Europe. ^{4Sow bugs are easily distinguished from pill bugs at a glance by noticing the 2 or 3 pronged projection that looks like a tail. They are also incapable of rolling into a ball when picked up as pill bugs do. The two families of sow bug are distinguished from each other by noting the number of segments at the distal end of the antennae. Oniscidae have three segments at the end, whereas Porcellionidae have only two.} 56 Sept 01 – noted several beneath a rotted log near the interpretive center while doing a survey of the fauna. The antennae of the specimen was not examined.
Butterfly, Gulf Frittilary	Agraulis vanillae		⁵19 Sept. 02 – Photo taken of an individual sipping nectar from the pickerel-weed blooming at the lily pond beside the parking lot. 7(see Ajilvsgi, 1990, p.133)
Butterfly, Hackberry	Asterocampa celtis celtis		¹Possibly the most common butterfly in our area. Always found in close association with its food plant, hackberry. ^{3This is a ‘specialist’ species, the caterpillars must feed on hackberry leaves - there can be no substitute. Adults are not dainty nectar sippers. Instead, they feed mostly on tree sap, rotting fruit, honeydew, carrion, and muddy water.} 56 Sept 01 – Spoke about one we observed on a trail walk.
Centipede, Stone	(C) Chilopoda (O) Lithobiomorpha	²All centipedes, even small ones, produce a poison that is quite painful to humans. ^{4All species are less than 1.7 inches long, with 15 pairs of legs (young ones have fewer pairs). Generally chunkier with longer legs than the soil centipedes. "When disturbed, stone centipedes move their last pairs of legs rapidly, throwing droplets of sticky material at the potential predator and slowing it in the tangling mass" (Levi, 1968, p144). ^{3Centipedes are predators. Insects make up the bulk of their diet.}} 514 Jan 03 – Stone centipede (~4cm in length) was noted under a log in a survey of the fauna.
Cicada, Dog-day	(O) Homoptera Tibicen spp.	⁵10 July 00 – Hordes of Tibicen sp. cicada have emerged from the ground and are calling constantly during the day. 7(Borrer & White, 1970, p. 129)
Cricket, Common Field	Gryllus spp.	⁵2 Nov 02 – Observed one under a log.
Earwig	(O) Dermaptera	¹Dark brown, shiny, dangerous-looking insects with a large pincer-like cerci at the end of the abdomen. Earwigs are not picky eaters - they feed on plants, organic wastes, and smaller insects. When disturbed they emit a liquid that smells like creosote. The common name arises from an old belief that they crawl into people’s ears at night and bite them. In reality they are completely harmless. Female earwigs are notably maternal - they protect their eggs, retrieve the young that wander off, and continue to feed their nymphs until they are strong enough to fend for themselves. The ‘pincers’ found on their abdomens are useful in determining the sex - males have curved pincers while the female’s pincer is nearly straight (Nardi, 1988, pp. 18-19) 52 Nov 02 – Observed one under a log.
Harvestman, Daddy Longlegs	(O) Opiliones (F) Phalangiidae Phalangium spp. and other genera	¹Daddy longlegs are commonly referred to as spiders although in actuality they belong to a completely different order known as Opiliones. They are distinguished from spiders in several respects: They have chewing mouthparts instead of fangs, no poison glands and two eyes instead of six or eight. There are 18 species listed for Texas (Jackman, 1999, p. 139). Some species have long legs and some have short. The second pair of legs are longest and are waved around as antennae. This movement of the second pair of legs was thought to resemble the reaping actions of farmers leading to name of harvestman. There is an old English belief that killing one is bad luck because they were thought to be aiding the farmers in bringing in the crops. (Nardi, 1988, p.149).^{2Along the anterior lateral margins of the carapace, a pair of scent glands can be found. These produce isoquinone secretions when the harvestman is disturbed. This milky fluid is non-poisonous and has an agreeable, mint-like flavor. This may seem like trivial information, but you never know when you might be lost in the wilderness without a breath mint. On numerous occasions, the author has been incorrectly informed that, "Daddy longlegs are the most poisonous spiders in the world, but their fangs are too small to penetrate human skin". Unraveling this urban myth has been a slow process, but the confusion appears to be finally resolved. The common name, ‘daddy longlegs’ also applies to a spider with long thin legs frequently found in cellars. Its scientific name is Pholcus phalangioides. It feeds on other spiders, which are quickly incapacitated by its supremely deadly venom. This venom is listed as being the deadliest venom to spiders. The venom is harmless to humans. ^{3Harvestmen feed mainly on small insects, but, unlike spiders, also eat dead animals and plant juices.}}^{5Everpresent on summer walks at the preserve.} 7(Levi, 1968, p.128), (Milne, 1980, p.920), (Nardi, 1988, p.149)
Mantid, Carolina	(F) Mantidae Stagmomantis carolina		³Mantids prey on butterflies, moths, flies, wasps, bees, bugs and caterpillars. (see Milne, 1980, p. 397)^{4Light green to brownish gray in color.} 526 Dec 02 – Encountered an occupied egg mass attached to a thin branch low to the ground on the trail near the interp center.
Mayfly	(O) Ephemeroptera Ephemerella sp.		⁵7-22-98 – Noted and identified several while seining the big pond. 7(Reid, 1967, p. 97)
Millipede	(C) Diplopoda (_SC) Chilognatha		¹Millipedes are common creatures, easily located under fallen logs or flat stones. There are about 600 species of millipede north of Mexico. ^{2Texas millipedes are not poisonous, although most species have pores which can emit strong smelling secretions. This fluid can irritate eyes so wash hands after handling them. ^{3Millipedes are slow moving detritivores, eating decaying (or rarely young living) plants and occasional dead animals. They are eaten by birds and toads and other animals. ^{4There are numerous Orders of millipedes and they are very similar to each other. For this reason identification is best left at the level of Subclass (Levi & Levi, 1968, pp.146-151). Millipedes are easily distinguished from centipedes. Millipedes are slow moving, harmless creatures with high domed bodies. Centipedes move quickly to disappear from view, have flattened body segments, and possess poison bearing claws (chelicerae) that are easily visible mounted along the sides of their heads. Millipede means "thousand feet" as opposed to centipede meaning "hundred feet". Millipedes have four legs per segment and centipedes have two. The names hundred or thousand feet have nothing to do with the actual number of legs.}}} 514 Jan 03 – Dead specimen noted under log near interp center.
Mosquito, Asian Tiger	Aedes albopictus		¹First appeared in the United States in 1985 in Houston in a load of tires imported from Japan. By 1997, it was being reported in the Dallas area. The rapid spread of the Asian tiger mosquito is of concern because it is known as a disease-carrying mosquito in its native range. It has the potential to be an effective vector for dengue fever & eastern equine encephalitis as well as 15 other diseases (OTA, 1993). It breeds readily in just about any water-filled container. Another aggravating aspect of its presence is the fact that it bites during the heat of the day. Other mosquitoes in our area are most active in the morning or evening. As if fire ants weren’t enough, now we have all-day mosquito coverage. 31 Oct 98 – Noted that a large fraction of the mosquitoes biting (around noon) were Asian Tiger.	A
Psyllid	(F) Psyllidae		⁵Everpresent – On leaves and petioles of every hackberry tree. 7 For a list of galls found at Elm Fork Preserve and the arthropods that cause them, see the document titled, ‘Fungi, Galls, Lichens, Prokaryotes and Protists of Elm Fork Preserve’.
Scorpionfly	(O) Mecoptera (F) Panorpidae Panorpa spp.		¹Only the males possess the scorpion-like abdomen.^{52 Nov 02 – Noted a male on the trunk of the lightning struck cottonwood tree.} 7(Drees & Jackman, 1998, p. 198)
Spiders, all			¹There are 900+ spider species in Texas (Jackman, 1999, p.xi)
Spider, Jumping	(F) Salticidae		⁵Frequently noted at the preserve. Individual species have not been identified. 7(Levi & Levi, 1968, pp.53, 89) (Milne & Milne, 1980, p. 912)
Spider, Araneus	(F) Araneidae Araneus spp		¹Araneus is the largest genus of spiders with over 1500 species worldwide. These are medium sized, hairy spiders that spin orb webs. They have poor vision, but compensate by being acutely aware of vibrations in their webs. They are often found somewhere along the edge, waiting patiently in a rolled up leaf. A signal line, connected to the hub of the web, is monitored from the retreat. The webs are eaten when they become damaged or lose some of their stickiness. ^{4The web is similar in size and shape to that of Argiope spp. but lacks the zigzag pattern through the center.}^{5Frequently encountered. Individual species have not been identified.} 7(Levi & Levi, 1968, p.53)
Spider, Crab	(F) Thomisidae Misumena spp. and other genera		¹Crab spiders move like crabs and hold their legs like crabs as they move forward, backward or sideways. They do not spin a web, preferring to ambush insects that come to visit flowers. Crab spiders have a keen perception of movement and strong venom that quickly disables insects such as bees and flies that are much larger than the spider. Misumena and Misumenops are known as flower spiders and have the ability to slowly change color over the course of ~10 days to match the flowers in which they are hiding. While they are in the process of changing color, a red stripe is apparent on each side of the abdomen. During courtship the male often wraps the female in a loose web of silk (Levi & Levi, 1968, p. 94). ^{5Frequently encountered. Individual species have not been identified.} 7(Levi & Levi, 1968, p.95)
Spider, Bowl & Doily weaver	(_SF) Linyphiidae Frontinella communis		¹These members of the sheetweb weaver family are best identified by their web which usually resembles a filmy bowl about 6" across with additional webbing forming a platform beneath. The spider can be seen somewhere near the center and is small, 4-5mm from head to abdomen tip. ^{5A frequently encountered spider at the preserve in bushes and tall grass. ^{6F. pyramitela as listed in (Levi & Levi, 1968, p. 47) is now known as F. communis (Jackman, 1999, p.63).}} 7(Levi & Levi, 1968, p.47)
Spider, Filmy Dome	(_SF) Linyphiidae Neriene radiata (?)		⁴This close cousin to the bowl & doily spider has a similar appearance but a different web – a dome instead of a bowl 5A frequently encountered spider at the preserve in underbrush, bushes and tall grass.
Spider, Wolf	(F) Lycosidae Rabidosa spp. & other genera		¹Wolf spiders are virtually everywhere outside, once one begins to look for them. There are approximately 100 species north of Mexico. Wolf spiders may be found hunting day or night. They have good vision and a fine tactile sense. Female wolf spiders carry their egg sacs attached to their spinnerets. When the spiderlings hatch, they climb onto the mother’s back, climbing up her legs if they are inadvertently brushed off. ^{5Frequently encountered in leaf litter at the preserve.} 7(Levi & Levi, 1968, p.82)
Strider, Water	(F) Gerridae Gerris spp. and other genera		¹Water striders can be observed almost throughout the year. After a few warm days have passed in spring, adult striders can be observed skimming across the surface of quiet streams and ponds. These adults have made it through the winter in a dormant state hidden beneath large rocks and logs near the water. Adults mate in spring and lay eggs that hatch in a couple of weeks. There may be as many as three broods per year.^{3Adults prey on small insects that fall onto the water surface.}^{5Often seen skating along the waters edge at the slough.} 7(Borrer & White, 1970, p.117), (Drees & Jackman, 1998, p.46)
Waterscorpion	Ranatra fusca		¹Adults of these aquatic insects have a 2cm long, stick-like ‘tail’ which is actually a paired set of breathing tubes. They usually inhabit the bottoms of shallow fresh water, hiding among debris. ^{2Ranatra fusca can bite if molested. It injects a digestive saliva that is irritating to humans. ^{3Waterscorpions feed on the body juices of small fish, tadpoles, insects and salamanders.}}^{522 July 98 – Encountered a waterscorpion while seining the southern end of the big pond.} 7(Milne & Milne, 1980, p. 466)
Wasp, Paper	(F) Vespidae (_SF) Polistinae		¹The nest consists of a single, more or less circular tier of cells attached with a short stalk to the underside of some surface, in bushes or under the eaves of buildings. The reddish brown paper wasps mate in fall and then crawl into protected crevices to escape the cold. Males die sometime during the winter, leaving the females isolated and alone to start new colonies in spring. If you find a paper wasp in early winter, check to see if it is male or female. The female’s face is completely dark brown while the male has a whitish or light yellow face. Males are stingless and can be carefully picked up and examined.^{3The young are fed chewed up insect parts.} 514 Jan 03 – noted at abandoned nest hanging in a leafless bush.

For a list of galls found at the Preserve and the arthropods that cause them, see the document titled ‘Fungi, Galls, Lichens, Prokaryotes and Protists of Elm Fork Preserve'.

The Wild Vision Newsletter, filled with information on the flora and fauna of north central Texas, is on file in the Elm Fork Preserve Interpretive Center.

To learn what insects do in winter, see Wild Vision Newsletter January 1996, Vol. 2, Issue 1, p.1.

To add arthropods to your diet, see Wild Vision Newsletter November 1996, Vol. 2, Issue 11, pp.2-3.

Reference:

Ajilvsgi, Geyata. Butterfly Gardening for the South. Dallas, Texas: Taylor Publishing Company, 1990.

Borrer, Donald J, Dwight M. DeLong & Charles A. Triplehorn. An Introduction to the Study of Insects. Dallas, Texas: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976.

Borrer, Donald J. & Richard E. White. A Field Guide to Insects. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1970.

"Dichotomous Key to the Common Families of Colorado Spiders" http://www.dmns.org/spiders/id.html Copyright (c) 1998, Denver Museum of Natural Science. (derived from Kaston, B.J. 1978. How to Know the Spiders. The Pictured Key Nature Series, Wm. C. Brown Co. Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa.) Drawings (c) 1999 Eric Parrish.

Drees, Bastiaan M., & John A. Jackman. A Field Guide to Common Texas Insects. Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing Company, 1998.

Felt, Ephraim Porter. Plant Galls and Gall Makers. New York, NY: Hafner Publishing Company, 1965.

Gilberg, Lynne (Editor). Garden Pests & Diseases. Menlo Park, California: Sunset Publishing Corporation, 1993.

Hamman, Philip J. "Boxelder Bugs." Publication # l-183. College Station, TX.: Texas Agricultural Extension Service, 1985.

Hickman, Cleveland P., Larry Roberts & Frances Hickman. Biology of Animals. St. Louis, MO: Times Mirror/Mosby College Publishing, 1986.

Jackman, John A. Ph.D. Field Guide: Spiders and Scorpions of Texas. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company, 1999.

Levi, Herbert W. & Lorna R. Levi. Spiders And Their Kin. New York, New York: Western Publishing Co./ Golden Press, 1968.

Milam, Royce. Natural History Notebook. The following dates: 28 Oct 97, 12 Feb 98, 9 July 98, 22 July 98, 27 Sept 98, 31 Oct 98,

1 Nov 98, 13 April 99, 22 April 99, 28 April 99, 29 Oct 99. (All dates pertain to Elm Fork Preserve but not all contain arthropod data).

Milam, Royce. Completed Program Summaries. The following dates: 2 May 98, 19 June 98, 8 July 98, 24 July 98, 22 Aug 98, 1 Oct 98, 10 Oct 98, 31 Oct 98, 1 Nov 98, 2 Nov 98, 26 March 99, 25 April 99, 21 May 99, 21 June 99, 24 June 99, 6 July 99, 28 Oct 99, 4 Nov 99, 31 Jan 00, 30 April 00, 9 Oct 01, (All dates pertain to Elm Fork Preserve, but not all contain arthropod data). (personal note: This is not a full listing of completed programs for EFP – only those with an after walk summary.)

Milam, Royce. "Red Fire Ant Update". Nature Center News, (Publication of the Dallas Nature Center). March/April 1995, pp. 5-6, 9

Milam, Royce. "Red Fire Ant Update – Genetic Discoveries". Wild Vision Newsletter. February 1996, Volume 2, Issue 2, p.3

Milne, Lorus and Margery. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Insects and Spiders. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, inc., 1980.

Nardi, James B. Close Encounters With Insects And Spiders. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1988.

Newman, L. H. Man and Insects – Insect Allies and Enemies. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, 1967.

Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress. Harmful Non-Indigenous Species in the United States. OTA--F565, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1993.

Reid, George K., (Herbert S. Zim & George S. Fichter, Editors). Pond Life. Racine, WI: Western Publishing Co., Inc., 1967.

Rood, Ronald N. The How and Why Wonder Book of Insects. New York, New York: Wonder Books, 1960.

Stokes, Donald. Observing Insect Lives. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown and Company. 1983

Vinson, Bradleigh S. & A. Ann Sorensen. Imported Fire Ants: Life History and Impact. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Department of Entomology, 1986.

Yepsen, Roger , Jr. (Editor). The Encyclopedia of Natural Insect & Disease Control. Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Press, 1984.

Zak, Bill. A Field Guide to Texas Critters - Common Household & Garden Pests. Dallas, Texas: Taylor Publishing Co., 1984.

Zim, Herbert & Clarence Cottam. Insects - A Guide to Familiar American Insects. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1951.

Caution: Alteration of this electronic document destroys data integrity and voids all liability for species misidentification by the author.

All identifications were made by the author unless specifically noted. If additions are made to the species list, please be sure to include the person’s name that is making the identification, as well as the date, time, location, evidence used for identification (bones, tracks, scat, photos, etc) and the reference used.

(Arthropods of EFP.doc)